Edward regarded the Scottish action as based on false grounds!

As a result, his fury would know no bounds!

Edward marched north, sending word to King John to meet him at the border town of Berwick-upon-Tweed in order to apologise for his gross impertinence. When John declined to oblige, Edward destroyed the town causing immense slaughter. Such was Edward’s anger, that all were to be put to the sword.

‘King John refused to meet King Edward on the appointed day!

For this insult the local population would have to pay!’

Edward then proceeded into the Scottish Lowlands, efficiently and swiftly eradicating any resistance to his progress. King John, a poor general, was no match for ‘Longshanks’ and by July he had surrendered to Edward.

If anyone thought that Edward would be magnanimous in victory they were in for a rude shock.

A victory so very sweet, I will tour Scotland and the defeated I will meet!

Yes, dear Scots, you I will greet, and all will grovel dejectedly at my feet!

The English king was in a particularly vengeful mood and although he accepted the surrender, he felt it appropriate that King John be ritually humiliated. Edward decided to subject John to a really quite degrading ordeal. When John appeared before Edward at Montrose he ordered that the insignia of the Lion of Scotland be ripped from John’s robes as a symbol of his ignominious submission.

The Lion of Scotland.

This is how King John received the humiliating nickname, ‘Toom Tabard’ (empty coat). The Scottish king, who only minutes earlier he had been wearing the finest of clothing, was left standing in rags in front of the assembled nobility. He was then packed off to be imprisoned in the Tower of London.

But for Edward, this humiliation was not enough!

He was hell-bent on cutting up really rough!

The barons, who had rebelled, were also to be taught a lesson. In August, Edward ordered them to attend a Scottish parliament that he decided to convene.

‘Where? In some great Scottish fortress, or important landmark, regarded as such since days of yore?

No, it was to be held in the now destroyed town of Berwick where the Scottish nobility were to swear fealty to him. As they filed into the empty ruins of this only recently thriving, vibrant town, the barons must have been filled with immense shame. The sight of the bloated bodies lying across the area of the town, would have constituted a depressing sight to these proud Scottish nobles. The stench of the thousands of corpses filling the air would have grieviously assaulted their nostrils. Edward, of course, observed the proceedings with grim satisfaction, resolute in the righteousness of his actions.

King Edward made a victory tour of Scotland with a great display of force. He traversed glens, gleefully parading his power before the defeated Scots, but that was still not enough.

Edward now seized the royal Scottish stone at Scone!

He took it back to Westminster and placed it under the English throne!

The Stone of Scone had been part of the coronation ceremony for Scottish monarchs for centuries, and as such was a vital symbol of Scottish autonomy. Edward had it placed under a new specially designed English throne on which most monarchs would be crowned at Westminster. By doing so Edward was saying that the king of England was the overlord of the people of Scotland.

‘In other words, rubbing their noses in it!

Well, more than just a little bit!’

This, to say the least, caused huge resentment north of the border.

The throne built by Edward with a space for the Stone of Scone underneath.

Edward had left Scotland in the hands of three English nobles, seemingly confident that Scotland had been pacified. This confidence would soon prove to be misplaced.

The fact that Edward was in a position to turn his attention to Scotland came about due to a number of tragedies which befell the Scottish royal family.

The coronation of King Alexander III of Scotland.

 

King Alexander of Scotland had three children, but all had died in quick succession during the early-mid 1280’s. He had taken the precaution of acquiring a second wife in order to produce an heir, but he was killed in a riding accident in 1284 before one could be born.

‘King Alex would bitterly lament the three children that he had lost!

But it was the poor people of Scotland who would eventually bear the heaviest cost!’ 

However, Alexander did have a granddaughter, the eight year old Margaret, the Maid of Norway, daughter of the king of Norway, Eric II.

Margaret, Maid of Norway.

Margaret was now the heir to the throne of Scotland. This is where King Edward I saw a golden opportunity for Scotland to come, in time, under the control of the Plantagenet dynasty. He had already reached an agreement with King Eric whereby his own son and heir, Edward should marry Margaret who was now about to be crowned Queen of Scotland. King Edward was ecstatic, the Plantagents were now on course to rule the entire area of the British Isles. The Gaels of the British Isles, whether Irish, Scottish or Welsh would eventually come under the jurisdiction of the English crown. The House of Plantagenet would become the most powerful monarchy in European history, second to none.

‘Plantagenet rule would extend to cover each and every Gael!

But unfortunately, Edward’s lofty plan was destined to fail!’

However, this wonderful arrangement fell apart when Margaret died in Orkney in September 1290 en route to her coronation. The line of succession to the throne of Scotland was now left very unclear, but there were two main claimants. The two men were the English noble, John Balliol and the Scots baron, Robert Bruce.  A council was established to determine which of the two was the rightful heir to the crown. Edward was to oversee the selection procedure and the council subsequently found in favour of John Balliol.

The decision pleased Edward and Balliol was crowned as King of the Scots on St Andrews Day, 1292.

The Seal of John Balliol.

John Balliol would soon find himself in an extremely awkward situation. King John had to accept the domineering Edward as his feudal overlord. Worse still, Edward’s method of overlordship and treatment of King John would rankle badly with the Scottish nobility.

‘Balliol, now King John, on St Andrew’s Day, settles into a coronation feast at his royal palace!

However, in time he discovers that Scotland’s crown has become a veritable poisoned chalice!’

The roots of the English – Scots war.

Edward treated Scotland as very much a vassal state with King John in the role of a subordinate. John was expected to pay homage to the English king, and more importantly, Edward insisted upon hearing appeals against decisions made by Scottish courts and claimed the authority to overturn the verdicts if he thought it necessary. Matters came to a head in 1294 when Edward demanded that King John provide knights for his war against the French king, Philip IV. The Scottish nobles were incensed at what they regarded as Edward’s contempt for Scotland’s autonomy. They were even more angry when King John agreed to send the soldiers to Edward. Disgusted at King John’s weakness, they formed a governing council to conduct matters of state, and which stripped John of his royal authority. The Scots would eventually come to refer to King John as ‘Toom Tabard’, which means ’empty coat’.

‘Toom Tabard!

Have you no sword in your scabbard!

A sixteenth century image of King John wearing a broken crown and bearing an empty coat of arms.

The council decided to open negotiations with Philip IV, and agreed an alliance which would last three hundred years and become known as the ‘Auld Alliance’. In April 1296 the council forced King John to renounce his fealty to King Edward I.

Edward, furious at what he regarded as blatant  Scottish disloyalty, prepared for an invasion of Scotland.

 

 

 

‘After his backbreaking labours in the valleys of the west!

Edward was intent on enjoying a much needed rest!

The aftermath of his successful endeavours in Wales saw Edward turn his gaze northwards to Scotland, the other Celtic fringe with which England shared a land border. Clearly, frosty Scotland could not have been too far from his mind, but there was more pressing matters to be attended to in sunnier climes. Edward held lands in southwestern France, Aquitaine and Gascony, courtesy of the French crown. Thank God, his dreadful grandfather, King John had been unable to lose those lands along with the rest of his French empire, some eighty years before.

The flag of Aquitaine.

 Edward was certainly most unlike the late, unlamented John and intended to secure control of what remained of the Angevin empire. In 1286, Edward had paid homage to the newly crowned King of France, Philip IV for his lands as Duke of Aquitaine and Gascony. In fact, he spent three years there enjoying the good weather and fine wine. Also, as an Englishman of French descent and fluent in the language, he felt immensely comfortable amidst the beautiful scenery and splendid architecture. Edward could relax, unwind and be himself amongst his people here. After the ghastly time that he had endured in the mists of Wales dealing with those Welsh savages, his sojourn in France was nothing less than a much needed tonic.

‘I spent so long hunting those Welsh wretches through the hills, cold and drenched in rain!

Now here in the balmy ambience of France, my peace of mind, once more I can regain!’

King Philip IV of France.

In some ways the two men were rather alike, both were incredibly fine male specimens. King Philip was known as ‘le bel’ or ‘the fair’, due to his handsome appearance, and Edward was noted for his great height and long, lithe limbs. The resemblance was not merely physical, as both men possessed great force of character and a firm determination to attain their objectives. This became apparent when the two monarchs later quarrelled over Edward’s lands in Aquitaine and Gascony.

King Edward paying homage to King Philip for his French duchies.

But, this unpleasantness with the formidable Philip lay in the future. In 1290, Edward’s visceral anti-Semitism came to the fore and he banished the Jewish people from England’s shores. This was of course to be expected; one has only to look at the Plantagenet family history to discern as much.

He had now been king for eighteen years, and marvelling at his various achievements, he felt supremely at ease with himself. However, that same year, something truly horrible happened which affected Edward deeply, and probably permanently. His Queen Consort, the beloved Eleanor of Castile took ill, and died in the county of Nottinghamshire that November.

Eleanor of Castile.

The moment that Edward had heard that Eleanor was ill, he had rushed to her side. He then sent for their children for one last, melancholy meeting. They had been married for thirty-six blissful years ever since she stood before the altar in Burgos, Spain with Edward as a girl of thirteen. In the interim, the queen had endured some sixteen pregnancies, with just six of her children surviving to adulthood. This included the king’s heir, the future Edward II, who had been born in 1284. Now, at the reasonably advanced age of forty-nine, she had been called to her eternal rest. The king was distraught and accompanied the body on the 12 day journey to Westminster, where she would be interred in the Abbey.

Edward later erected crosses at every place where the funeral cortege halted overnight on its way to Westminster.

‘Farewell my sweet, dearly beloved Queen, Eleanor of Castile!

Your absence at my side is a loss, and sorrow that I will forever feel!’

As he led the cortege south, Edward’s face was skull like, his features contorted with grief, he had never known such sorrow.

There was another death in that autumn of 1290 which would have serious implications for Edward’s reign. Margaret, the Maid of Norway, the heir to Scotland’s throne, had died in Orkney. The seven year old princess had been betrothed to the six year old, Edward, son of Edward I.

Margaret, the Maid of Norway and heir to the Scottish throne.

This left Scotland without an undisputed heir, and there soon appeared a number of competing claimants. Such a development was normally a recipe for trouble and this particular situation was no exception.

‘In each and every part of Wales I will build a mighty castle!

To prevent the emergence of any upstart, traitorous rascal!’

Edward confers with master builder, James of St George, concerning the intricacies of castle construction.

The aftermath of the unpleasantness in Wales.

Perhaps Edward’s wife, Eleanor, might have asked him about the savage manner of Dafydd’s death. As far as the king was concerned Dafydd’s conduct had created a veritable nightmare. God knows poor, dear Roger Mortimer had died on campaign in Wales trying to deal with the Welsh upstart. Roger’s death had affected him deeply, after all, he had always been totally loyal to the crown. Roger had rescued Edward from Monty’s clutches during the Second Barons War.

 God, damn it man!

Edward exclaimed:

‘Sweet Roger had me freed from Monty’s gilded cage!

Is it any wonder that over his death, I felt an enormous rage!’

The loss of Roger had left Edward feeling immensely anguished. He could only take understandable comfort in the intimate details of Dafydd’s execution. The sufferings caused by the long-drawn out process of castration and disembowelling of the man while he was still alive, would have helped sooth his troubled emotions. Edward’s answer to the Queen consort would almost certainly have  been as follows:

‘My greatest need, my most earnest wish, at that point was a catharsis for my anguish!

For the flocks of birds flying around London bridge, Dafydd’s head must have presented a tasty dish!’

Getting down to business.

Justice had been done as far as the king was concerned, but now it was time to look to the future. Thank God, Wales had been subdued, but Edward had to ensure that the principality stayed under royal control. The only method of ensuring continued dominance was the construction of castles at strategic points across the country. Edward’s father, Henry III had begun this process, but Edward extended the programme with characteristic grim resolution.

‘Thanks dad, you began the Welsh castle building fad!

For the example given, I’m most proud and glad!’

A number of new towns were established where the castles were being constructed and Saxon immigrants were encouraged to settle there. Thus creating English urban enclaves positioned in a potentially hostile countryside. Now Edward had a base of loyal support among the population, and this too would help to preclude the possibility of rebellion.

The king embarked upon a major castle building programme and in this endeavour, no expense was spared. In order to ensure the highest standards of architecture, the master mason, James St George was brought over from Savoy to oversee the whole project. Indeed, James did so with a masterful precision that very much stood the test of time. The fruits of his labour can be seen across Wales to this very day.

Caernarfon castle, which lies besides the Menai Strait, is the most complex fortress built by the man from Savoy. One of its features was the presence of round towers. The new tower design allowed the defenders to deploy their fire with greater accuracy, and therefore inflict more damage on the attackers.

Beaumaris castle on Anglesey was the last item of Edward’s fortress construction programme. One of its features was the carefully constructed arrow slits placed at strategic intervals in the defences.

‘The firing slits in the castle are so, so very narrow!

But this means increased accuracy for each and every arrow!’

Another innovation was the provision of attack holes in the roof above the passageways through which the defenders could pour boiling oil on to heads of the emerging enemy.

‘You brave warriors gained entry to Beaumaris through practised armed skill and hard, bloody, backbreaking toil!

But all you got in return was a melted head and torso, courtesy of our own homemade, specially concocted boiling oil!’

Beaumaris castle -featuring the moated north-western defences.

Edward’s measures to deal with what he regarded as unreasonable behaviour by the Welsh were largely successful. Wales remained peaceful for a century or more. The king was content, and he now felt confident in turning his attention to another part of the Celtic fringe, Scotland.

 

‘As time passes, so turns the tide!

For the ap-Gruffydd brothers, there is nowhere now to hide’!

Edward I

Edward’s offensive in Wales had been halted, and a confident Llewelyn had rejected the king’s offers of negotiations. However, the tide now turned in Edward’s favour. Llewelyn had descended from Snowdonia, had travelled to Powys and this, through pure chance, proved to be his undoing. The facts are not entirely clear, but he was travelling with his entourage when he was surprised by a contingent of royal forces at Orewin Bridge in the Brecknockshire hills on December 11th. He was slain by a knight who failed to recognise him. This Welsh prince would be known thereafter as Llewelyn the last. When the body was identified, the corpse was decapitated and sent to London and put on public display. It was the end of an era.

‘So farewell, sweet prince, you noble warrior, Llewelyn the last!

With your slaying at the river Irfon, the age of Welsh freedom is now consigned to the past.

Not quite, if brother Dafydd had anything to do with it. Edward was consumed with a burning hatred for Dafydd. The king really hated him because he blamed the younger brother for the second rebellion and all of the accompanying trouble that it had brought. Hatred? When Edward hated, he did so with a passion and zeal which both mesmerised and terrified all of those who witnessed it.

It was now operation ‘Get Dafydd’ and with this in view Edward led his forces into the mountains of Snowdonia in pursuit of the elusive Welsh prince.

It was now January 1283 and Edward deployed the total military might at his disposal to quash resistance to his will. The Welsh under Dafydd were totally overwhelmed by the sheer numbers, as well as the advanced weaponry of the royal forces. The objective was reached swiftly as the Welsh, demoralised, slipped away back to their homes like hounds with their tails between their legs. Dafydd, deserted by his followers was reduced to hiding in a bog with his family, and perhaps a few faithful retainers. Alas, there are informers at every moment in time and in every corner of the earth, and the Snowdonia of 1283 was no exception.

The location of Dafydd’s bog bolt hole, where he was keeping his head down was revealed to Crown forces and so they sought him out. Spying the ominous sight of the armed men approaching, Dafydd’s people would have alerted him crying:

‘Duck, Daffy, duck, run and remember to duck Daffy, duck!

Run with speed and grace like a wild, noble mountain buck!’

There was to be no escape, and Dafydd, bound with chains was brought forth to Edward at Rhuddlan. For Edward it was a most joyous moment to be grimly and quietly savoured as he contemplated Dafydd’s eventual fate. The unfortunate Welsh leader was then to be taken from his homeland, to which he would never return, for trial at Shrewsbury in September 1283. True, Dafydd knew that the sentence would be death, but was he really aware of the precise nature of his inevitable execution?

The king certainly was; he had been indignant beyond belief at the manner in which Dafydd had taken Hawarden. He and his men had gained entrance to the castle on the holy day of Palm Sunday holding palm leaves as a sign of peace. Once inside they had put the entire garrison to the sword, sparing no one. To Edward, his conduct was unpardonable and the penalty would have to reflect the enormous gravity of his crime. He had rewarded Dafydd admirably for his service in Wales in 1277, now this. When Dafydd had appeared before Edward at Rhuddlun, the king did not mince his words:

‘I, in friendship clasped you, Dafydd to my bosom so close and firm!

Then I discovered you were nothing more than a wretched, disloyal little worm!’

But what to do? Was there a punishment that could possibly fit this terrible crime? Happily for Edward, someone whose identity has been lost in the mists of time, came up with the perfect solution. There was a new initiative regarding capital punishment, hanging, drawing and quartering. The intricacies were explained to Edward and he enthusiastically endorsed it as part of England’s penal code.

‘The felon is drawn to the place of execution lying low on a sledge. This signals to all that he is not fit to partake of the common air.

He is then suspended on a rope by the neck between the earth and heaven to show that he is worthy of neither!

His private parts are then to be hacked off to illustrate that he is totally unfit to beget any issue to live after him! The parts are to be presented to the felon so he may contemplate them, lying bloody in the palm of the executioner’s hand!

His abdomen is to be sliced open, and the entrails to be removed slowly and then burnt before his eyes. This is because his heart and other organs have harboured such terrible mischief, and therefore must be consumed by fire!

Finally, he is to be beheaded and the head to be placed on some high place. This is so the fowls of the air may peck and chew at it at their ease!’

This is what happened to Dafyyd at Shrewsbury, he was the first noble to be executed in such a fashion. Indeed he was the first, but he would not be the last. You might comment that such a horrible penalty could not possibly become a permanent feature of English law. On the contrary, the practice would continue in precisely the same form for another five centuries.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘King Edward asks the Archbishop of Canterbury to mediate in this deadly dispute!

The man of God finds the Welsh badly behaved, lazy and the country, a place of general  ill-repute!’

Edward had asked the Archbishop of Canterbury, Franciscan friar and a truly remarkable man, John Peckham to mediate in the conflict. Peckham’s task was almost certainly doomed from the start, given the fact that neither Edward or Llewelyn were prepared to compromise on any issues of substance. King Edward did offer Llewelyn a great estate in England if he would cooperate in turning Wales into a province of the English crown. This, Llewelyn refused, declaring in a letter to Peckham that he could do no other than act in accordance of what he considered to be the best interests of his people. A fine and fitting epitaph for a leader who would become known as ‘Llewelyn the Last’.

The Red Dragon of Wales.

However Peckham’s mission was also undermined by his low opinion of the Welsh. The Archbishop castigated the population as being bone idle, and criticised them for engaging in pastoral farming as opposed to the arable kind. He did not mince his words regarding the clergy either, Peckham described them as unchaste and given to drunkenness.

The effigy of John Peckham, Archbishop of Canterbury.

With the feast of Christmas 1282 fast approaching, Edward’s mood was hardly one of bonhomie and good cheer. The invasion had not gone to plan, but resilient as always,  Edward was certainly not in defeatist mode and would have been preparing for the next stage of hostilities. The king was determined that Wales would soon become the jewel in his crown.

The year had also brought sorrow to the House of Llewelyn ap Gruffydd. His wife Eleanor, daughter of Simon de Montfort had died giving birth to a baby girl, Gwenllian in June.

Eleanor de Montfort.

King Edward too, probably felt some sadness at the news as Eleanor had been a cousin of his. True, she was the daughter of the reviled Monty but then blood is always thicker than water. Indeed, Edward had been a guest at their lavish wedding, and when the war in Wales was over he made provision for the baby Gwenllian.

‘Family ties then had to be put aside!

Tis to the sound of the battlefield that all must now ride!’

Llewelyn decided to take advantage of the setbacks suffered by the English. In euphoric mood, he now came off the mountain and declared his undying loyalty to the Welsh people, it was if his words were written in stone. Observers remarked that it reminded them of the biblical account describing Moses coming down from the mountain, in his hands, the word of God. Llewelyn’s very presence radiated unbounded Celtic heroism.

A later depiction of Llewelyn ap-Gruffydd.

This day in late 1282 constituted the highwater mark of medieval Welsh nationalism. However, it must be remembered that it was his brother Daffyd who had actually ignited the rebellion. One can forgive Daff for perhaps feeling a little peeved at this, and the conversation may have gone thus:

‘You know Lew, if it not been for me setting off the whole show by attacking Hawarden, you would still be kicking your heels on the rocks of the west coast!’

‘I know Daff, it was your bravery, resourcefulness and skill which started this. And when the credit is awarded, Daff, it will be you who gets the most!’

This was a statement with which their arch enemy, the king of England, certainly concurred. At the close of the conflict, Edward most certainly gave Daffyd what he considered an appropriate reward for his part in the rebellion.

Llewelyn travelled to mid-Wales in order to organise the potential support that he had heard was growing there. Indeed, possible allies included some of the Marcher lords, if Llewelyn could persuade these men to ride with him then a significant coup against Edward will have been realised.

But who was to win, game, set and match?

 

Edward I

In 1282, Llewelyn-ap-Gruffydd, holed up in his mountainous lair and still smarting over his humiliating defeat in 1277 was eager to strike against Edward. In fact it was Llewelyn’s estranged brother, Daffyd who seized the initiative by mounting an attack on Hawarden Castle which had been rebuilt by Edward as a safeguard in the event of a future Welsh rebellion.

Dafyyd had once been an ally of Edward’s in the conflict against Llewelyn, and of course this had put a strain on the natural bond of brotherhood. However, Dafydd was very dissatisfied with the reward he had received from Edward in return for his quite considerable services. The estranged brothers were now reconciled by virtue of their mutual hatred for the king of England.

‘Llewelyn, I Dafydd, will lead valiant Welsh men bearing my personal shield!

Together, we will drive the English invaders from every town and field!’

This was the opening shot in the ap-Gruffydd brothers military campaign to banish the English presence and restore Welsh supremacy in Wales. One of the reasons for Edward’s swift victory in 1277 was that he had the support of many of the Welsh nobles who were resentful at what they regarded as Llewelyn’s harsh rule. However, by 1282 this support had evaporated because they found that being subject to English law was considerably less to their liking than they had anticipated.

The English barons were unctuous and condescending towards the Welsh, whom they considered as being akin to little more than the hunter-gatherer cavemen of long ago. Under these really quite insulting circumstances, a return to the ‘good old days’ under a resurgent Llewelyn seemed a welcome proposition.

This time around, Llewelyn felt that he had a very real chance of ejecting the hated English from the principality of Wales. The brothers, Lew and Daff must have concluded:

‘Strike when the iron rule of the English is hot!

That way we can root out the foreign rot!’

Edward was swift to respond and plans for a full scale invasion were laid immediately. The king’s war aims were rather different from 1277 when his objective was simply to bring Llewelyn to heel, and strip him of much of his land and power. This time, Edward was embarking upon a war of colonisation, so as to ensure that England gained and maintained total dominance over its western neighbour.

Edward’s strategy was the deployment of the three-pronged attack. The king would lead his army into north Wales, while trusted friend and valued confidant, Roger Mortimer would conduct hostilities in the middle area of the principality. The Earl of Gloucester would be charged with eliminating the enemy in the south. The king must have been reasonably confident that the mission would be accomplished in fairly good time.

Initial setbacks.

In June of 1282, Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, was heavily defeated at the Battle of Llandielo Fawr. The king promptly relieved de Clare of his command and replaced him with William de Valence, Earl of Pembroke, who penetrated as far south as Aberystwyh but failed to engage with Welsh forces.

In October, Edward received news of the death of Roger Mortimer. This was both a huge personal and professional loss. Mortimer, a loyal and competent soldier, had been instrumental in arranging his escape from captivity by de Montfort’s forces all those years ago.

‘Dearest Roger, how I mourn you, a man, so loyal, resourceful and bold!

I had hoped that I would have you at my right hand until I grew quite old!’

Further unwelcome news was conveyed to Edward the following month. On November 6th the commander of royal forces on Anglesey, Luke de Tany decided to mount a surprise attack on the Welsh soldiers encamped on the mainland. In the event it was de Tany who was surprised.

The coat of arms of Luke de Tany.

Using a pontoon bridge, the English force crossed the Menai straits, but were ambushed by the waiting Welsh in what became known as the Battle of Moel-y-don and suffered some 300 losses including their leader, de Tany.

This round of the conflict had to go to the ap Gruffydd brothers, Llew and Daff. Reflecting on recent events, the chuckling brothers must have concluded as follows:

‘You know Llew, of his army, Edward has lost more than just a few!

Daff, the day that he decided to invade Wales is one that he will tearfully rue!’

In the meantime, King Edward pondered the unhappy situation with a view to rectifying matters as swiftly as possible.

 

When he ascended to the throne in 1272, , the Lord Edward was now a mature and accomplished man of thirty-three. He had married Eleanor of Castile at the age of fifteen and when she was thirteen. Although a marriage arranged through political convenience, as most were, it proved to be an unusually happy union.

Queen consort Eleanor of Castile

‘Although the marriage was borne from cynical political intrigue!

Their love for each other would show not one sign of fatigue!’

Edward was on his way back from the Ninth Crusade with his wife when he heard of his father’s death in November 1272, but would not arrive in England until 1274. One of the reasons for his late arrival was because an assassin had managed to stab him in June 1272 and although wounded, Edward fought him off, killing the assailant.

‘I grabbed the dagger from the assassin’s murderous hand!

With it I thrust at him, and it was his blood not mine, which flowed so very freely in the sand!

A later depiction of Edward dispatching his would-be assassin.

Fearing a poisoned blade, legend has it that Eleanor had sucked the wound clean with her own mouth. Accurate or not, the royal couple were by all accounts, completely devoted to each other.

Another reason for his relatively leisurely journey home was the fact that his accession to the throne was assured. In fact Edward had been proclaimed king when his father died, which was unusual, as this was normally done at the coronation itself. In his absence the realm was being ruled by a royal council selected by Edward before his departure for the Ninth Crusade. He would be crowned king at Westminster on August 19th 1274. Edward had many vassals throughout the British Isles, and all were expected to attend the coronation and swear fealty to the new king. One prince, conspicuous by his absence was the Welsh leader, Llewelyn-ap-Gruffydd. This act of discourtesy constituted an unforgiveable breach of royal protocol, and one that Edward would not forget.

Edward was probably the first ‘English’ king to rule the realm since the Norman Conquest. This was a little ironic, given that in terms of being a warrior-lawyer king he resembled his ancestor, the staunchly Norman William the Conqueror, more closely than any of the other medieval monarchs.

A very different England from that of William’s day was emerging by the mid-13th century. The distinction between Dane, Norman and Saxon had gradually disappeared during the passing of the intervening two centuries, and the country had evolved into a ‘new’ England with a common national identity. In fact given the events of his reign, Edward might also be dubbed the first ‘British’ king.

‘With the advent of Edward’s reign!

All were now one, whether they be Saxon, Norman or Dane!’

Edward would alter the way that the ‘new’ England was to be ruled. In fact he would build on the progressive base laid down by his nemesis, Simon (Monty) de Montfort).

King Edward resolved to create an empire, not overseas but within the British isles, namely Scotland and Wales. Areas of Ireland were already under the jurisdiction of the English Crown, a process begun by Edward’s great-grandfather, Henry II.

The conquest of Wales.

Round one.

His first priority was to be Wales, the relationship between the English and the Welsh had been characterised by conflict for centuries. Edward intended nothing less than the eventual total subjugation of the country to English rule. In late 1277, Edward led a large army into Wales. It was the expedition which would reveal the new king’s superb military aptitude. Of course Edward was still smarting from Llewelyn’s insulting behaviour regarding the coronation. One might imagine him mulling over the situation and exclaiming:

‘First of all, the mangy Welsh cur refuses the invitation to attend my coronation and then fails to show up for an appointment with me at Shrewsbury! He goes on to attack areas of my realm and tells everyone that he is going to marry Monty’s daughter Eleanor, come November! Talk about throwing down the gauntlet! For these insults and injuries he must pay!’

Eleanor de Montfort.

Edward, angered at Llewelyn’s temerity, was determined to give the Welsh leader a short, sharp shock and indeed this was swiftly applied. Advancing into North Wales with 15,000 soldiers many of whom travelled by ship to Anglesey, he was able to cut off Llewelyn from his principal supply of food. Faced with the effects of Edward’s prompt action and with winter approaching, Llewelyn realised that he was in a vulnerable position to say the least.

‘Oh Llewelyn, to King Edward, you were so, so rude!

Now he invades Wales and gathers up for himself your private supply of food!

Dear Llewelyn, you will now have to admit that you acted out of error and sin!

In this instance it was for Edward a very big win!

All that you achieved was to place on Edward’s face, an almighty grin!’

There was no alternative but to surrender, and Llewelyn was forced to agree to humiliating terms as laid down by the Treaty of Aberconwy of November 1277. The Welsh prince was deprived of much of his territory, which was ceded to English control. Edward cemented his victory by building a ring of castles throughout his newly won territory. Llewelyn was left with only the western area of Gwynedd but surprisingly, in a spirit of magnanimity, Edward him allowed to retain the title ‘Prince of Wales’. Indeed, the obliging Edward also gave his permission for the marriage of Llewelyn and Eleanor de Montfort to take place. It was a case of round one to the English Crown, but the matter was not to be left to rest there. Hostilities would later recommence after a relatively short interval.

Old King Henry breathed a sigh of relief as he was pulled from the ground. Although relief turned to boundless joy when he learned of the slaughter of Monty and his allies. The twelve man assassination squad were selected for particular praise:

‘You tore that treacherous Monty limb from limb!

Giving him a death, agonizingly painful and grim!

You have made your elderly king happy and content!

Tis by God’s good hand that to serve me you were sent!’

King Henry’s thoughts soon turned to revenge. He, an annointed king had suffered a humiliating captivity in his own realm by his own brother-in-law Monty. He, who was appointed monarch by God, had been towed through the English countryside like an item of valuable baggage to be traded for profit when the time came. Henry was now planning to confiscate the lands of the rebels as a punishment for their treachery in supporting Monty. Instead of living like princes, this vile shower would be cast out as paupers, their future residence, the side of the road.

‘In order to make your punishment totally real!

I will guarantee it with my royal seal!

Another person who was reflecting on recent events was Simon the younger.

Simon the Younger.

Lord Edward had been in the doldrums after his mishap at Lewes, but it was nothing to what Simon was feeling in the aftermath of Evesham. His failure to arrive on time at Evesham had cost his father, Simon de Montfort and his supporters their lives. Why was he late? Riding along the road to Evesham that morning he had felt somewhat peckish and decided to stop for a bite of breakfast. An army marches on its stomach, so halt, open up the grub wagon and give the lads a tasty start to the day.

‘Roll! Roll! Roll out the serving tables and give each and every man a huge bacon and duck egg roll!

After such a great meal they will be ready to fight with every fibre of their body and soul!’

While his father, Monty and allies were fighting for their lives, Simon and his soldiers were merrily tucking into a hearty plateful in the green woodlands of Worcester. Wracked with shame and grief at his failure at Evesham, Simon fled Henry’s wrath and sailed for France. The son of the once most powerful man in England now roamed France and Italy as a sword for hire. It was a miserable existence, made even more so when he and his brother Guy were excommunicated by the Pope for murdering their cousin inside a church in Italy in 1271. Simon died later that year of fever at Sienna.

Recriminations and reconciliation. The King’s peace.

An image of Henry III.

To begin with, the allies of de Montfort did have their estates confiscated. However, King Henry now showed his gallant side in dealing with the wives of the rebels; Henry was at heart, a man of moderate, peaceful tendencies.

‘This baron’s War has made of the country, a dreadful mess!

But by my hand no damsel will ever fall into a state of pitiful distress!’

The thought that Henry might cause a good many damsels to fall into distress was something that he was totally unable to countenance. Although never a real warrior, the king revealed himself to be a knight in shining armour as far as the beleaguered  womenfolk were concerned. In almost all cases these ladies were spared the misery of destitution.

The papal legate to England, Ottobuono de’Fieschi had been sent to England by the Pope to act as a mediator between the two sides in the ‘Baron’s War and he preached moderation to the king. Henry, religious man that he was, listened to de’Fieschi and the result was the Dictum of Kenilworth.

Ottobuono de’Fiesci

The Dictum of Kenilworth of October 1266 did two things: it restored royal authority and moderated the punishment meted out to the rebels. The Provisions of Oxford were dispensed with, but the king reaffirmed Magna Carta. The rebels were, in the main, pardoned and they were to pay fines rather than suffer the total confiscation of their estates. A year later the Statute of Marlborough re-established much of the Provisions of Oxford and it is said that this marked the beginning of the end of feudalism in England.

King Henry III, the final years.

The sheer length of Henry’s reign made it an almost impossible burden to bear. In his final days, he craved an ambience of peace and the time to engage in practices of piety above all other things.  Happily he received both.

Henry carrying a relic of the Holy Blood to Westminster Abbey earlier in his reign.

Henry spent his final years on the rebuilding of his beloved Westminster Abbey the consecration of which, sadly he would not live to see. It was a Herculean task and obviously a most expensive one, but the cost itself was but a mere trifle as far as Henry was concerned. The rebuilt abbey would be his own personal monument to the glory of God. In 1269, Henry had the body of his patron saint Edward the Confessor moved from his original resting place to a most ornate shrine in the abbey. Indeed, he himself acted as a pallbearer, walking as solemnly through the great nave as if the late king, dead two hundred years had but recently died.

Edward too embarked upon a religious activity with a fervour which equalled that of his father. However, his course of action regarding the affirmation of his faith was to be of a different complexion. Characteristically, Edward would select the military option in order to express his devotion to God. The heir to the throne decided to take the cross, and left England in 1270 in order to travel to the Holy Land on crusade.

The goodbyes between father and son at Winchester would be the last conversation between the two of them.

Henry himself died at Westminster on November 16th 1272. He was sixty-five years old and had reigned for fifty six years. At the beginning of his reign, in the wake of his father King John’s death, many felt that his reign would be of the briefest duration, but events conspired otherwise. In fact most of his subjects would be unable to remember any other king but he. King Henry was interred by the high altar in Westminster in the former resting place of his beloved St Edward the Confessor.

Henry’s effigy on his tomb in Westminster Abbey.

‘The king is dead, long live the king!’

But Edward was not there to hear these heartfelt cries. He was away in the Holy Land engaged in warfare. This activity would prove to be the hallmark of his reign.

This time the Lord Edward was ready. His father, the king was still a prisoner of Monty, but of that, nothing as yet could be done.

Simon ( Monty) de Montfort.

The Lord Edward enjoyed support not only from the lords of the Welsh Marches, but also from Llewellyn ap Gruffydd who agreed to provide military aid. The Welsh prince was prepared to give Edward considerable assistance, but his price included Edward agreeing to his being granted the title the ‘Prince of Wales.’ This would prove to be somewhat ironic, given Edward’s actions in Wales once he became king. But no matter, in the meantime, there occurred an enthusiastic meeting of allies. With great appreciation, Edward sent the following message to Llewellyn:

‘Llew, just a line to let you know that I am so very grateful to you!

Should you need any aid from me, Llewy, just ask, don’t hesitate, please do!

With your help from the west, accompanied with your customary zest!

Together against the traitorous Monty, we will prevail by doing our very level best!’

An image of Llewellyn ap Gruffydd.

The Lord Edward’s first victory occurred at Kenilworth in July 1265. Monty’s son, Simon the Younger, had taken an army there with a view to confronting Edward.

Simon the younger.

The appearance of young Simon and his army had in fact prompted Edward to retreat back to Worcester. In the event, it was the younger Simon who was to be taken unawares. In a daring overnight cavalry attack he surprised young Simon at dawn, and captured a number of leading barons. However, Simon the younger was able to escape and hoped to regroup with his father who had the king in tow.  With a view to combining with his son’s forces, Monty arrived at Evesham abbey on August 4th 1265. From here he would await the arrival of his son. So confident of success was Monty, that he cheerfully attended mass with his prisoner, King Henry that morning. Monty looked forward to the arrival of his son who was expected later in the day.

‘However the morning sunrise brought poor Monty a horrible surprise!

The Lord Edward would arrive at Evesham in a most beguiling disguise!

Edward had conceived a clever trick!

It was one which left Monty feeling quite utterly sick!’

Monty was informed that a large army bearing his son’s colours was approaching the abbey. He was overjoyed at the news, but then a terrible truth was discerned. It was not Simon the younger who was in sight, but the Lord Edward. The prince tricked Monty’s lookouts by bearing Simon the younger’s banners which had been captured at Kenilworth.

The Battle of Evesham.

The Lord Edward was hell bent on revenge and purification. Today he would purge himself of the guilt he had carried since the defeat at Lewes. He had erred by indulging himself in chasing and massacring those worthless cockneys, instead of staying on the field and protecting his father’s flank. That error had helped bring about the present humiliating situation. As usual Edward’s allies, scenting victory, were licking their lips as they pondered the high prices for which they would ransom the captured barons back to their families. But this was not to be, for Edward, honour must come before profit. The prince drew his commanders together and told them that they must forego the tantalising prospect of ransoming captured nobles. These traitors were all to be slaughtered as pigs in a pen.

‘You talk that the fruits of today’s victory will satisfy your insatiable greed!

I tell you that only the shedding of traitorous blood will complete our intended and noble deed!’

This was to be a blood sacrifice as only blood could wash away the shame of the catastrophic defeat suffered at Lewes. Edward then designated Roger Mortimer to lead a squad of handpicked knights charged with the specific task of killing Monty. The job of sending Monty into eternity required careful preparation, nothing was to be left to chance.

The outlook did not bode well for Monty, Edward’s army outnumbered his by two to one. The fact that Simon the younger and his forces had failed to appear, meant certain defeat for him. There was but one course of action to follow, and that was to fight in the hope that Simon the younger would arrive or die to the last man. In an unforgivable insult, Monty attired King Henry in a suit of armour with rebel insignia and press ganged the unfortunate monarch into joining his ranks in combat against his own son. Quite swiftly, the royalist forces surrounded de Montfort’s men and his son Henry was soon slain. Upon hearing of Henry’s death the old earl said, ‘well then it is time to die’.

Henry de Montfort.

Despite his advanced years Monty fought bravely and vigorously, as the twelve man assassination squad led by Mortimer cornered him on the field. It is said that Monty died when Mortimer pierced his throat with a lance from behind.

‘As the battle raged on, Mortimer saw his chance!

Catching Monty from behind, he took aim and pierced his throat with a lance!

The dreaded de Montfort was dead, but was that enough? No, not for Edward and his men it was not. A curious and extremely grisly sort of ritual then took place. Driven by an insatiable blood lust, they hacked and stabbed at Monty’s body, dismembering it limb by limb.

Mortimer gleefully gathered up Monty’s head and testicles with his own hands to take home to his wife as souvenirs of the victory at Evesham field.

A great victory for the royalist forces, but one that nearly cost King Henry his life. Adorned in de Montfort’s colours, he was attacked and wounded by his own men. Thankfully, he was able to identify himself to his assailants by crying out:

‘For the love of God, I am Henry of Winchester, your king. Don’t kill me!’

before further, perhaps fatal damage was done.

Simon the younger, apparently did make a belated arrival at Evesham, keen to see his father face to face. Well he did, at the battle’s close he was able to view his father’s head securely balanced on the tip of Roger Mortimer’s lance.

‘I have just seen my father’s head atop a lance!

I can’t wait around to meet the Lord Edward’s menacing glance!

‘Tis high time for me to take a boat and flee across the sea to France!

And flee he eventually did. The royal authority of the House of Plantagenet had been restored.